The Resilience of Democracy in the Midst of the COVID-19 Pandemic:Democratic Compensators in Belgium, the Netherlands and France

Since January 2020, European countries have implemented a wide range of restrictions to contain the COVID-19 pandemic. Yet governments have also implemented democratic compensators in order to offset the negative impacts of restrictions. This article aims to account for the variation of their use between Belgium, the Netherlands and France. We analyse three drivers: the strength of counterpowers, the ruling parties’ ideological leanings and political support. Building on an original data set, our results distinguish between embedded and ad hoc compensators. We find that ad hoc compensators are championed mainly by counterpowers, but also by ideology of the ruling coalitions in Belgium and the Netherlands and used strategically to maintain political support in France. Evidence on the link between embedded compensators and counterpowers is more ambiguous.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishe

Privacy-Preserving Classification on Deep Neural Network

Neural Networks (NN) are today increasingly used in Machine Learning where they have become deeper and deeper to accurately model or classify high-level abstractions of data. Their development however also gives rise to important data privacy risks. This observation motives Microsoft researchers to propose a framework, called Cryptonets. The core idea is to combine simplifications of the NN with Fully Homomorphic Encryptions (FHE) techniques to get both confidentiality of the manipulated data and efficiency of the processing. While efficiency and accuracy are demonstrated when the number of non-linear layers is small (eg $2$), Cryptonets unfortunately becomes ineffective for deeper NNs which let the problem of privacy preserving matching open in these contexts. This work successfully addresses this problem by combining the original ideas of Cryptonets\u27 solution with the batch normalization principle introduced at ICML 2015 by Ioffe and Szegedy. We experimentally validate the soundness of our approach with a neural network with $6$ non-linear layers. When applied to the MNIST database, it competes the accuracy of the best non-secure versions, thus significantly improving Cryptonets

Climate change alters impacts of extreme climate events on a tropical perennial tree crop

Anthropogenic climate change causes more frequent and intense fluctuations in the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Understanding the effects of ENSO on agricultural systems is crucial for predicting and ameliorating impacts on lives and livelihoods, particularly in perennial tree crops, which may show both instantaneous and delayed responses. Using cocoa production in Ghana as a model system, we analyse the impact of ENSO on annual production and climate over the last 70 years. We report that in recent decades, El Niño years experience reductions in cocoa production followed by several years of increased production, and that this pattern has significantly shifted compared with prior to the 1980s. ENSO phase appears to affect the climate in Ghana, and over the same time period, we see corresponding significant shifts in the climatic conditions resulting from ENSO extremes, with increasing temperature and water stress. We attribute these changes to anthropogenic climate change, and our results illustrate the big data analyses necessary to improve understanding of perennial crop responses to climate change in general, and climate extremes in particular

Understanding poverty in cash-crop agro-forestry systems: evidence from Ghana and Ethiopia

This paper examines the linkages between cash-crop income and other dimensions of poverty to interrogate assumptions regarding the relationship between agricultural income and poverty alleviation. The analysis treats poverty as a multi-dimensional and socially disaggregated phenomenon. The paper employs a mixed methods approach to case studies of Ghana and Ethiopia to explore two critical issues. First, how income from cash crops is linked with other dimensions of poverty. Second, how income and land are socially disaggregated. The paper then draws on qualitative data to critically reflect on how poverty is understood within studied communities. The results show that some, but not all, indicators of poverty vary across income quartiles and that significant differences exist across social groups. The analysis suggests that although cash crops are essential, focusing on increasing income from cash crops will not necessarily have a predictable or progressive impact on wellbeing. Furthermore, the analysis highlights how contextual factors, such as the provision of communal services, the nature of land holdings and the quality of local governance mediate the potential poverty alleviating outcomes of income increases. Future development of sustainable intensification strategies should focus on the prevalence of trade-offs and the fundamental social relations underpinning poverty dynamics

The Cellular Prion Protein PrPc Is Involved in the Proliferation of Epithelial Cells and in the Distribution of Junction-Associated Proteins

BACKGROUND: The physiological function of the ubiquitous cellular prion protein, PrP(c), is still under debate. It was essentially studied in nervous system, but poorly investigated in epithelial cells. We previously reported that PrP(c) is targeted to cell-cell junctions of polarized epithelial cells, where it interacts with c-Src. METHODOLOGY/FINDINGS: We show here that, in cultured human enterocytes and in intestine in vivo, the mature PrP(c) is differentially targeted either to the nucleus in dividing cells or to cell-cell contacts in polarized/differentiated cells. By proteomic analysis, we demonstrate that the junctional PrP(c) interacts with cytoskeleton-associated proteins, such as gamma- and beta-actin, alpha-spectrin, annexin A2, and with the desmosome-associated proteins desmoglein, plakoglobin and desmoplakin. In addition, co-immunoprecipitation experiments revealed complexes associating PrP(c), desmoglein and c-Src in raft domains. Through siRNA strategy, we show that PrP(c) is necessary to complete the process of epithelial cell proliferation and for the sub-cellular distribution of proteins involved in cell architecture and junctions. Moreover, analysis of the architecture of the intestinal epithelium of PrP(c) knock-out mice revealed a net decrease in the size of desmosomal junctions and, without change in the amount of BrdU incorporation, a shortening of the length of intestinal villi. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: From these results, PrP(c) could be considered as a new partner involved in the balance between proliferation and polarization/differentiation in epithelial cells

The structures underpinning vulnerability: examining landscape-society interactions in a smallholder coffee agroforestry system

Smallholder farmers dependent on rain-fed agriculture are particularly vulnerable to extreme climate events and, therefore, it is necessary to identify adaptive measures that would increase farmer resilience to these shocks. The management options in a low-input system, like forest coffee (Coffea arabica), are limited and there are several factors out of farmers' control driving their vulnerability to changing climatic conditions. These can relate to social structures and landscape factors, which can interact to reduce farmers' adaptive capacity, creating a state of contextual vulnerability. We explored the potential synergies of this interaction across elevation, patch area and shade management gradients for smallholder coffee farms around the UNESCO Yayu Coffee Forest Biosphere Reserve in Ethiopia before, during and immediately following the 2015/16 El Niño. We documented a dramatic collapse in coffee yields across all farms, resulting in coffee incomes 29.5 ± 18.0 % and 19.5 ± 10.0 % of 2014 incomes in 2015 and 2016, respectively. We identified farms at elevations between 1500-1600 m with canopy openness between 40-45 % as being consistently low yielding over our study period. We found these farmers had the highest rates of income diversification and, therefore, were already exhibiting adaptive capacity. Farmers with the largest income losses were spatially concentrated between 1600-1700 m, located in larger patch areas with lower canopy openness. Farmers at this elevation have access to poor infrastructure, restrictions on shade management and reported higher dependence on income from coffee, indicating an interaction of biotic and social factors exacerbating their vulnerability. Unfortunately, due to a nationally declared state of emergency, we were unable to survey farmers on the adaptive measures they undertook; therefore, we are limited in assessing their resilience. However, we do show the importance of considering both biotically and socially-mediated influences for assessing smallholder vulnerability, particularly barriers to diversifying incomes

Study of the achievement by means of controlled fusion and solidification of lanthanum and strontium manganite powders for application as cathode layers in SOFCs

Nos travaux portent sur des manganites de lanthane et strontium (LSM), synthétisées par voie de fusion dans un four delévitation aérodynamique. Ce procédé, qui consiste à fondre des échantillons compactés sous impact laser, permetd’atteindre des températures très élevées (2500°C), tout en s’affranchissant des risques de pollution par le creuset. Lamicrostructure des produits obtenus a été caractérisée par DRX et observée au MEB. Leur composition chimique a étédéterminée par analyse EDS et leur stoechiométrie en oxygène, par ATG.L’étude a permis de définir les conditions nécessaires à l’obtention par fusion d’un matériau de composition LSM et destructure pérovskite. Nous avons mis en évidence les paramètres déterminants, montré en quoi ils affectent la nature desphases finales et proposé un mécanisme pour la cristallisation de celles-ci à partir du liquide de composition La1-xSrxMnO3±δ.Une méthode originale de détermination des propriétés élastiques (module d’Young, coefficient de Poisson) a été miseen oeuvre pour caractériser les produits d’un point de vue mécanique : la corrélation d’images enregistrées au cours d’unessai de traction indirecte par fendage. L’effet de l’ajout de différents dopants (Ga, Nb, Mg à raison de 5 et 10% sur lesite B) a été étudié en vue d’améliorer la tenue mécanique du LSM.Our study concerns lanthanum and strontium manganites (LSM) synthesized by means of fusion in an aerodynamiclevitation furnace. This process consists in melting compacted samples with lasers, which enables to achievetemperatures as high as 2500°C while avoiding any pollution due to the crucible. The microstructure of the fusedproducts was characterized by XRD and investigated by SEM. Their chemical composition was determined by EDXanalyses and their O-stoichiometry by TGA.The study allowed us to define the conditions demanded in order to get a material exhibiting the LSM composition andthe purely perovskite structure. We evidenced the critical parameters, shew how they affect the final phases andproposed a mechanism for the crystallisation of these phases from a melt with the composition La1-xSrxMnO3±δ.To characterise our products from a mechanical point of view, an original method was used, based on the correlation ofimages recorded during an indirect tensile splitting test. Data on the elastic properties of the fused LSM were collectedand the effects on the mechanical strength of different dopants added on the B-site (Ga, Nb, Mg, 5 and 10%) werecompared

Industrie et paysage rural. Usine de production de biogaz en Aubrac (F)

2037. Sur le plateau de l'Aubrac, l'usine de biogaz de Marchastel fonctionne maintenant depuis près de dix ans. Devant son succès, d'autres ont fleuri dans la région et les agriculteurs ont pris l'habitude d'y amener leurs déchets afin qu'ils soient méthanisés. L'usine permet aujourd'hui de produire l'électricité nécessaire à la commune et le compost pour entretenir les pâturages. Forte de cette nouvelle implantation, la commune a vu ses activités se diversifier: en plus des productions directes de l'usine, la vente de compost et la production maraîchère remplissent la nouvelle place du village deux fois par semaine. De nouvelles structures permettant une meilleure collaboration entre les agriculteurs se sont développées. On accueille également des groupes de chercheurs, venus en apprendre davantage sur la méthanisation et son potentiel pour la reconversion des territoires agricoles. Les visiteurs sont de plus en plus nombreux à venir voir cette infrastructure peu commune. Ils suivent un parcours souterrain depuis la place du village. Guidés par des puits de lumière, ils avancent en devinant par instant l'activité de production qui se cache derrière la roche. L'ascension les mène au sommet du pic de Marchastel, où ils découvrent un point de vue unique sur les pâturages d'Aubrac

Prévision de l'effet de la taille de grain sur les traitements thermochimiques

Les matériaux nanocristallins présentent des propriétés de diffusion accrues dues à leur forte densité de joints de grain. Afin de maitriser totalement le processus de diffusion lors de traitements thermochimiques de tels matériaux, ces travaux s'attachent à donner un modèle de coefficient de diffusion macroscopique en fonction de la taille et de la forme des grain dans un polycristal. Ils s'appuient sur une technique d'homogénéisation effectuée après une analyse par éléments finis sur des volumes élémentaires représentatifs. On construit ainsi une expression analytique du coefficient de diffusion macroscopique en fonction de la taille de grain et de la surface de joints de grain projetée sur la direction de diffusion. Par une analyse de schémas élémentaires en deux dimensions, on extrapole le modèle trouvé à toute microstructure périodique

Effect of the nanocrystallization on pure iron nitriding kinetics

International audienceGas nitriding has been used to improve the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of components made of steel. This thermochemical surface treatment is performed using a flowing NH3, N2 gas mixture. The gas nitriding is usually performed at a temperature between 500 to 580°C for typically durations of 20 to 80h which involve very long cycle times. A pre-treatment of the sample surface by shot peening can be applied to produce nanocrystalline grains. This surface treatment enhances the nitrogen diffusion.The purpose of our study is to investigate the effect of nanocrystallization of pure iron samples on nitriding kinetics. Pure iron samples obtained by cold crucible melting have been submitted to short duration or long duration NanoPeening&#174 treatments. The samples are cuts in 5 mm thick pins in the cylindrical ingots (diameter 11 mm). Both sides of the pins receive the shot peening treatment. The pins are then cutted under water into 1 mm thick disks. The untreated surface is polished with SiC abrasive paper. For comparison, untreated shot peening iron disks (NG) are also prepared. The gas nitriding isothermal tests are performed at 500°C under NH3, N2, He mixture in a SETARAM TAG 24 thermobalance. The nitriding durations vary from 10 to 210 minutes. After the gas nitriding, the samples are first analysed by XRD. The nitrogen profiles are measured by GDOES (Glow Discharge Optical Emission Spectrometry). Finally, the machining and cross sectional electronics views of the samples are achieved in a FIB (Focused Ion Beam)